Audience responses

REPRINTED FROM EXPLORING THE MEDIA – ED BARBARA CONNELL

Audience Responses

Christine Bell

In this Section

• The ways in which audiences can be described.

• How audiences are constructed by the producers of media texts.

• How audiences- are positioned.

 The ways in which different audiences respond to, use and interpret texts. Our main area of focus is the relationship between the text and audience which is fluid and changing. In this postmodern, media-saturated world it is no longer acceptable to suggest that there is only one way of interpreting a text and only possible audience response. Audiences are not mass. They are comple and sophisticated in their responses. It is important also to consider the social and cultural experiences that affect audiences’ responses to a range of texts. In this section, the initial focus will be on the range of possible responses and not necessarily upon audience theories. However, the analysis of the response may lead to an exploration of relevant audience response theories.  It is important to move away from the idea that the meaning within texts is already embedded and unchanging and that all audiences respond to messages in title same way. Audiences are made up of individuals who bring social and cultural experiences to their interpretation of any text which may alter the messages they receive from the text. Audiences are not unquestioning consumers as has been suggested by theories in the past:.

 ‘Far from being turned into “zombies”, it has grown increasingly clear that audiences are in fact capable of a high degree of self-determination in the nature of the responses that they make to the products offered to them.’

(Stewart et aI., 2001, p.251)

 Audience Positioning

Stuart Hall, in his research [19731, suggested that texts were 'encoded' by the producers of the texts to contain certain meanings related to the social and cultural background of the creator of the text. However, once the reader of the text 'decoded' that text then the meanings intended by the producer may change. Hall then went on to suggest three main perspectives involved in the way in which an audience responds to a particular text. This involves how the audience ispositioned by the text and its subsequent response,

1. Preferred or dominant readings - this is where the audience interprets the text as closely to the way in which the producer of the text intended. If the social and cultural experience of the reader of the text is close to that of the producer then there is little for the audience to challenge. If you were a nurse you may well agree with the situations and narratives addressed in Casualty because they are within your breadth of experience.
2. Negotiated readings - this is where the audience goes through some sort of negotiation with themselves to allow them to accept the way in which the text is presented. You may agree with some elements of the text and disagree with others. This may mean the way in which you are positioned in a film where you are asked to empathise with a character you do not like, yet you are enjoying the film generally. You may need to adjust your viewpoint in order to get the most out of your viewing.
3. 3. Oppositional or resistant readings - this is where the user of the text finds themselves in conflict with the text itself due to their beliefs or experiences. For example, a narrative in a soap opera thatviews a woman who is having an affair sympathetically will encourage a resistant reading in a person whose culture is against adultery:

These perspectives,allow you to begin to understand thai one text cannot have a static meaning that is communicated in the same way to a mass audience. This concept should also allow us to challenge 'effects' theories that suggest that this is the case including the 'hypodermic needle' response which puts forward the idea that mass audiences are affected in a particular way by the contents of, and messages within, a specific text. What affects the way in which an audience responds to a text?

 Different audiences will respond to the same text differently according to:

• Gender - the relationships between the audience and text according to gender are complex. Men and women will respond to certain media texts in different ways. Certain research has shown that women prefer television programmes like soap operas that deal with narratives concerned with relationships and have strong female characters. Men, on the other hand, apparently prefer more factual programmes related to news and current affairs. However, there are obvious problems with such research as it is generalised and the men / women asked may respond in a way they think their questioner expects. It is commonly accepted that men too watch soap operas particularly those likeThe Bill. It is
• Also easy to say that women would respond to 'lads' mags' like Nuts and Zoo in a disapproving way - but how then to account for the women who send in their photographs to be published in these magazines or on the website?
• Situated culture - this concerns how our 'situation' - our daily lives, routines and relationships - can effect how we respond to media texts; where we are and who we are with has an effect upon our media consumption. Watching a film surrounded by friends or family will be a different viewing experience to one where you view a film alone. This response will change again if you are watching the film at home or at the cinema.

 Cultural experience - this is how our culture - our upbringing, experiences and beliefs - affect our response to a text. This also relates to how our understanding and our view of the world are shaped by our media experience. We may have never visited New York but our media consumption of film and television programmes have constructed a view for us. We may never have been in hospital but we feel knowledgeable about a range of medical procedures because our viewing habits include Holby City andER.

How texts construct and position audiences

Here we need to take a more complex approach to texts which go beyond basic content analysis. Texts can be said to construct an idea of their viewer / reader. This can be applied to an analysis of magazines where the magazine constructs an idea of Men's Health man or Glamourwoman. Here we can return to the work done on representation and consider the representations constructed by the magazines and the view of the world and related messages that they communicate to readers. Magazines offer discourse.

 The discourses of magazines make their topics and subject matter appear normal and make assumptions about the lifestyles and interests of their readers – hence the construction. McDougalllMcDougal, J. [20061 The media Teacher's Book]

suggests that discourses contained within the pages of Men’s Health include:

• Quick-fix problem solving.

• New male sensitivity.

• Male superiority / manipulation.

• Get a six-pack in six weeks.

• Male narcissism and society.

• How to look good.

• How to understand your girlfriend’s needs.

• If you understand her needs you will get what you want.

 Further evidence of the fact that magazines construct audiences can be found by looking at the press packs for magazines where reader profiles are set out. The reader information provided on the Men’s Health website states:

‘Who is the Men’s Health reader?

1. Late-20′s to mid-30′S, predominantly ABC1, a performance-driven achiever, self confident, open minded and adventurous,

2. Advanced in his career with the benefits of success translated into spending power.

3. Older and wealthier than the other major UK men’s lifestyle magazines with an appreciation of quality and an aesthetic eye:

In this way it can be seen that the producers of the magazine construct an idea of their audience and the articles in their publication will mirror and attract this ‘ideal man’.

 New Audiences – the interactive users

Our focus so far has been upon how different audiences respond to texts and what affects that response. It has been clear that audiences are complex and changing. With the advent of new technologies and formats including computer games and websites, audiences have become interactive users of the media who are in control and active in their choices, In a video / computer game the user can view the action from first- or third-person boint-of-view and can make choices about the narrative and the actions of the characters. Often the domain orthe male, as discussed earlier in this section, the computer game allows the male ambiguous control over female characters that have been created to be manipulated by him: ‘The terrain of computer games has become the site of erotic spectacle; in it the virtual heroine, as Mulvey described, plays to the male, holds his gaze, and is utterly and completely in his control.’ (Action Chicks, ed. Sherrie A Inness,2004)

Some analysts say that games interact with the user on a range of levels because of the immersion in the artificial world created and therefore the messages encoded in the game are more powerful and elicit a more profound respo.nse than in other formats that involve the audience. The experience of ‘gaming’ is therefore a more heightened one.

The ideas of autonomy and control can also be applied to the users of internet websites, where there is a wealth of information and experiences at your fingertips. But everyone will use the internet in a different way. Learning Point: The ways in which audiences are offered opportunities to use texts and become active is changing how we analyse audience responses.

The internet and web pages offer good examples of David Giuntlett’s idea of the ‘pick and mix’ audience. Here the audience uses texts -it ignores some aspects of them and choose the aspects that suit it at that time. The next time people play or search they may ‘pick and mix’ a different menu – the flexibility is there enable the user of these formats to do this.

Having come around to the concept of using the media to satisfy the needs of the audience at that moment, it may be time to give some consideration to an audience effects theory, ‘Uses and Gratifications’. This is one of the more useful theories as it assumes an active Irather than passive) audience and emphasises what the of media texts do with them rather than what the media does to the audience. However, the theory must be used with reservations as not all audiences have the needs suggested or use the media in this way. Blumler and Katz disagreed with earlier theories which placed the audience as a passive mass who could be influenced and would act upon messages communicated by the media. The Uses and Gratifications theory suggests that individuals and social groups use texts in different ways and the audience is no longer viewed as passive receiver.

 The identified needs of the audience were later refined as:

• Entertainment and diversion – as a form of escape from the pressures of everyday life.
• Personal relationships (social interaction – identification with characters and being able to discuss media texts with others.
• Personal identity – the ability to compare your life with that of characters and situations presented in media texts.
• Information/education – to find out and learn about what is going on in the world,

Poster ads codes and conventions

Poster Ad - Codes & Conventions from BoyleyB

The Language of Persuasion

This is to do with Modes of Address and is particularly useful to us when studying Ads:

Basic persuasion techniques

1. Association. This persuasion technique tries to link a product, service, or idea with something already liked or desired by the target audience, such as fun, pleasure, beauty, security, intimacy, success, wealth, etc. The media message doesn’t make explicit claims that you’ll get these things; the association is implied. Association can be a very powerful technique.  A good ad can create a strong emotional response and then associate that feeling with a brand (family = Coke, victory = Nike).  This process is known as emotional transfer.  Several of the persuasion techniques below, like Beautiful people, Warm & fuzzy, Symbols and Nostalgia, are specific types of association.

2. Bandwagon. Many ads show lots of people using the product, implying that "everyone is doing it" (or at least, "all the cool people are doing it"). No one likes to be left out or left behind, and these ads urge us to "jump on the bandwagon.” Politicians use the same technique when they say, "The American people want..." How do they know?

3. Beautiful people. Beautiful people uses good-looking models (who may also be celebrities) to attract our attention. This technique is extremely common in ads, which may also imply (but never promise!) that we’ll look like the models if we use the product.

4. Bribery. This technique tries to persuade us to buy a product by promising to give us something else, like a discount, a rebate, a coupon, or a "free gift.” Sales, special offers, contests, and sweepstakes are all forms of bribery. Unfortunately, we don’t really get something for free -- part of the sales price covers the cost of the bribe. 

5. Celebrities.  (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Plain folks.) We tend to pay attention to famous people. That’s why they’re famous! Ads often use celebrities to grab our attention. By appearing in an ad, celebrities implicitly endorse a product; sometimes the endorsement is explicit. Many people know that companies pay celebrities a lot of money to appear in their ads (Nike’s huge contracts with leading athletes, for example, are well known) but this type of testimonial still seems to be effective. 

6. Experts.  (A type of Testimonial.) We rely on experts to advise us about things that we don’t know ourselves. Scientists, doctors, professors and other professionals often appear in ads and advocacy messages, lending their credibility to the product, service, or idea being sold.  Sometimes, Plain folks can also be experts, as when a mother endorses a brand of baby powder or a construction worker endorses a treatment for sore muscles.

7. Explicit claims.  Something is "explicit" if it is directly, fully, and/or clearly expressed or demonstrated.  For example, some ads state the price of a product, the main ingredients, where it was made, or the number of items in the package – these are explicit claims.  So are specific, measurable promises about quality, effectiveness, or reliability, like “Works in only five minutes!” Explicit claims can be proven true or false through close examination or testing, and if they’re false, the advertiser can get in trouble. It can be surprising to learn how few ads make explicit claims. Most of them try to persuade us in ways that cannot be proved or disproved.

8. Fear. This is the opposite of the Association technique. It uses something disliked or feared by the intended audience (like bad breath, failure, high taxes or terrorism) to promote a "solution.” Ads use fear to sell us products that claim to prevent or fix the problem. Politicians and advocacy groups stoke our fears to get elected or to gain support.

9. Humor. Many ads use humor because it grabs our attention and it’s a powerful persuasion technique. When we laugh, we feel good. Advertisers make us laugh and then show us their product or logo because they’re trying to connect that good feeling to their product. They hope that when we see their product in a store, we’ll subtly re-experience that good feeling and select their product. Advocacy messages (and news) rarely use humor because it can undermine their credibility; an exception is political satire.

10. Intensity. The language of ads is full of intensifiers, including superlatives (greatest, best, most, fastest, lowest prices), comparatives (more, better than, improved, increased, fewer calories), hyperbole (amazing, incredible, forever), exaggeration, and many other ways to hype the product.

11. Maybe. Unproven, exaggerated or outrageous claims are commonly preceded by "weasel words" such as may, might, can, could, some, many, often, virtually, as many as, or up to. Watch for these words if an offer seems too good to be true. Commonly, the Intensity and Maybe techniques are used together, making the whole thing meaningless. 

12. Plain folks.  (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Celebrities.) This technique works because we may believe a "regular person" more than an intellectual or a highly-paid celebrity.  It’s often used to sell everyday products like laundry detergent because we can more easily see ourselves using the product, too. The plain folks technique strengthens the down-home, "authentic" image of products like pickup trucks and politicians. Unfortunately, most of the "plain folks" in ads are actually paid actors carefully selected because they look like "regular people.”

13. Repetition. Advertisers use repetition in two ways: Within an ad or advocacy message, words, sounds or images may be repeated to reinforce the main point. And the message itself (a TV commercial, a billboard, a website banner ad) may be displayed many times. Even unpleasant ads and political slogans work if they are repeated enough to pound their message into our minds.

14. Testimonials. Media messages often show people testifying about the value or quality of a product, or endorsing an idea. They can be experts, celebrities, or plain folks. We tend to believe them because they appear to be a neutral third party (a pop star, for example, not the lipstick maker, or a community member instead of the politician running for office.)  This technique works best when it seems like the person “testifying” is doing so because they genuinely like the product or agree with the idea.  Some testimonials may be less effective when we recognize that the person is getting paid to endorse the product.

15. Warm & fuzzy. This technique uses sentimental images (especially of families, kids and animals) to stimulate feelings of pleasure, comfort, and delight. It may also include the use of soothing music, pleasant voices, and evocative words like "cozy" or "cuddly.” The Warm & fuzzy technique is another form of Association.  It works well with some audiences, but not with others, who may find it too corny.

Intermediate persuasion techniques

16. The Big Lie. According to Adolf Hitler, one of the 20th century’s most dangerous propagandists, people are more suspicious of a small lie than a big one. The Big Lie is more than exaggeration or hype; it’s telling a complete falsehood with such confidence and charisma that people believe it. Recognizing The Big Lie requires "thinking outside the box" of conventional wisdom and asking the questions other people don’t ask.

17. Charisma. Sometimes, persuaders can be effective simply by appearing firm, bold, strong, and confident. This is particularly true in political and advocacy messages. People often follow charismatic leaders even when they disagree with their positions on issues that affect them.

18. Euphemism. While the Glittering generalities and Name-calling techniques arouse audiences with vivid, emotionally suggestive words, Euphemism tries to pacify audiences in order to make an unpleasant reality more palatable. Bland or abstract terms are used instead of clearer, more graphic words. Thus, we hear about corporate "downsizing" instead of "layoffs," or "intensive interrogation techniques" instead of "torture.”

19. Extrapolation. Persuaders sometimes draw huge conclusions on the basis of a few small facts. Extrapolation works by ignoring complexity. It’s most persuasive when it predicts something we hope can or will be true.

20. Flattery. Persuaders love to flatter us. Politicians and advertisers sometimes speak directly to us: "You know a good deal when you see one." "You expect quality." "You work hard for a living." "You deserve it." Sometimes ads flatter us by showing people doing stupid things, so that we’ll feel smarter or superior. Flattery works because we like to be praised and we tend to believe people we like. (We’re sure that someone as brilliant as you will easily understand this technique!) 

21. Glittering generalities. This is the use of so-called "virtue words" such as civilization, democracy, freedom, patriotism, motherhood, fatherhood, science, health, beauty, and love. Persuaders use these words in the hope that we will approve and accept their statements without examining the evidence. They hope that few people will ask whether it’s appropriate to invoke these concepts, while even fewer will ask what these concepts really mean.

22. Name-calling. This technique links a person or idea to a negative symbol (liar, creep, gossip, etc.). It’s the opposite of Glittering generalities. Persuaders use Name-calling to make us reject the person or the idea on the basis of the negative symbol, instead of looking at the available evidence. A subtler version of this technique is to use adjectives with negative connotations (extreme, passive, lazy, pushy, etc.) Ask yourself: Leaving out the name-calling, what are the merits of the idea itself?

23. New. We love new things and new ideas, because we tend to believe they’re better than old things and old ideas. That’s because the dominant culture in the United States (and many other countries) places great faith in technology and progress. But sometimes, new products and new ideas lead to new and more difficult problems.

24. Nostalgia. This is the opposite of the New technique. Many advertisers invoke a time when life was simpler and quality was supposedly better ("like Mom used to make"). Politicians promise to bring back the "good old days" and restore "tradition." But whose traditions are being restored? Who did they benefit, and who did they harm? This technique works because people tend to forget the bad parts of the past, and remember the good.

25. Rhetorical questions. These are questions designed to get us to agree with the speaker.  They are set up so that the “correct” answer is obvious. ("Do you want to get out of debt?" "Do you want quick relief from headache pain?" and "Should we leave our nation vulnerable to terrorist attacks?" are all rhetorical questions.) Rhetorical questions are used to build trust and alignment before the sales pitch.

26. Scientific evidence. This is a particular application of the Expert technique. It uses the paraphernalia of science (charts, graphs, statistics, lab coats, etc.) to "prove" something. It often works because many people trust science and scientists.  It’s important to look closely at the "evidence," however, because it can be misleading.  

27. Simple solution. Life is complicated. People are complex. Problems often have many causes, and they’re not easy to solve. These realities create anxiety for many of us. Persuaders offer relief by ignoring complexity and proposing a Simple solution. Politicians claim one policy change (lower taxes, a new law, a government program) will solve big social problems. Advertisers take this strategy even further, suggesting that a deodorant, a car, or a brand of beer will make you beautiful, popular and successful.

28. Slippery slope. This technique combines Extrapolation and Fear. Instead of predicting a positive future, it warns against a negative outcome. It argues against an idea by claiming it’s just the first step down a “slippery slope” toward something the target audience opposes. ("If we let them ban smoking in restaurants because it’s unhealthy, eventually they’ll ban fast food, too."  This argument ignores the merits of banning smoking in restaurants.)  The Slippery slope technique is commonly used in political debate, because it’s easy to claim that a small step will lead to a result most people won’t like, even though small steps can lead in many directions.

29. Symbols. Symbols are words or images that bring to mind some larger concept, usually one with strong emotional content, such as home, family, nation, religion, gender, or lifestyle. Persuaders use the power and intensity of symbols to make their case. But symbols can have different meanings for different people.  Hummer SUVs are status symbols for some people, while to others they are symbols of environmental irresponsibility.

Advanced persuasion techniques

30. Ad hominem. Latin for "against the man," the ad hominem technique responds to an argument by attacking the opponent instead of addressing the argument itself. It’s also called "attacking the messenger.” It works on the belief that if there’s something wrong or objectionable about the messenger, the message must also be wrong.

31. Analogy. An analogy compares one situation with another. A good analogy, where the situations are reasonably similar, can aid decision-making. A weak analogy may not be persuasive, unless it uses emotionally-charged images that obscure the illogical or unfair comparison.

32. Card stacking. No one can tell the whole story; we all tell part of the story. Card stacking, however, deliberately provides a false context to give a misleading impression. It "stacks the deck," selecting only favorable evidence to lead the audience to the desired conclusion.

33. Cause vs. Correlation. While understanding true causes and true effects is important, persuaders can fool us by intentionally confusing correlation with cause. For example: Babies drink milk. Babies cry. Therefore, drinking milk makes babies cry.

34. Denial. This technique is used to escape responsibility for something that is unpopular or controversial. It can be either direct or indirect. A politician who says, "I won’t bring up my opponent’s marital problems," has just brought up the issue without sounding mean.

35. Diversion. This technique diverts our attention from a problem or issue by raising a separate issue, usually one where the persuader has a better chance of convincing us. Diversion is often used to hide the part of the story not being told. It is also known as a “red herring.”

36. Group dynamics. We are greatly influenced by what other people think and do. We can get carried away by the potent atmosphere of live audiences, rallies, or other gatherings. Group dynamics is a more intense version of the Majority belief and Bandwagon techniques.

37. Majority belief. This technique is similar to the Bandwagon technique. It works on the assumption that if most people believe something, it must be true. That’s why polls and survey results are so often used to back up an argument, even though pollsters will admit that responses vary widely depending on how one asks the question.

38. Scapegoating. Extremely powerful and very common in political speech, Scapegoating blames a problem on one person, group, race, religion, etc. Some people, for example, claim that undocumented (“illegal”) immigrants are the main cause of unemployment in the United States, even though unemployment is a complex problem with many causes.  Scapegoating is a particularly dangerous form of the Simple solution technique.

39. Straw man. This technique builds up an illogical or deliberately damaged idea and presents it as something that one’s opponent supports or represents. Knocking down the "straw man" is easier than confronting the opponent directly.

40. Timing. Sometimes a media message is persuasive not because of what it says, but because of when it’s delivered. This can be as simple as placing ads for flowers and candy just before Valentine’s Day, or delivering a political speech right after a major news event. Sophisticated ad campaigns commonly roll out carefully-timed phases to grab our attention, stimulate desire, and generate a response.

Possible exam questions - Past Papers

How typical of their genres are your chosen texts?

Consider:

Discuss the audience appeal of your three main texts.

Consider:

Most media texts target a wide range of audiences, how true is this of your chosen texts?

Consider:

'Most texts today mix genres.' How true is this of your three main texts?

Consider:

Describe Niche and Mainstream audiences with specific text examples

Consider:

Pp ms4 2013 from ealeya

MS3 Production

The following info is from the WJEC specification.

Production
• The production should develop from, and be informed by, the student's research
investigation. Reflecting their research findings (either by conforming to or deliberately
challenging their findings) is essential.

Task 1: 25.2.2014
Create a list of findings by revisiting you research investigation.

Task 1: 25.2.2014
Create a second list explaining elements you will include in your production that are informed by your Research Investigation.

Task 3: 26.2.2014
Annotate your script or a printout of the lyrics in your text describing what you are going to shoot and giving a reason for the...

• framing
• camera moves
• editing
• lighting

Everything in your production needs to be there for a considered reason.
That reason as you all know is to attract a target audience.

Task 4: 27.2.2014
Storyboard your production and include rough timings.

Task 5: 27.2.2014
Create a shot list. Something like this.

Next week you should be ready to go out filming, be patient and prepare properly.

The effect of proximity within shots.

In visual representation, social distance is related in part to apparent proximity. 
In camerawork, degrees of formality are reflected in shot sizes
 - close-ups signifying intimate or personal modes.
 - medium shots a social mode and 
 - long shots an impersonal mode. 
In visual media, the represented physical distance between the observed and the observer often reflects attempts to encourage feelings of emotional involvement or critical detachment in the viewer. 
Proximity is not the only marker of social distance in the visual media: angles of view are also significant. High angles (looking down on a depicted person from above) are widely interpreted as making that person look small and insignificant, and low angles (looking up at them from below) are said to make them look powerful and superior

The interplay of these techniques is important. In the three photographs shown here of Michelangelo's David (1501-4, Accademia, Florence), whilst all of the shots are taken from below this gigantic figure, the close-up from below seems to me to emphasize the power of the figure in contrast to the mid-shot, in which - despite the musculature - David seems somewhat softer and more vulnerable. The closer we are the more we look upwards. 
Power is signified most strongly by a low angle which is also a close-up - as if, as we get closer, we become more vulnerable.

Colors in Advertising

The use of colors in advertising and how it is used in other countries. Advertisers have to be extremely careful when choosing colors for specific advertisements based on location and what the product is for. Every color has a psychological connection to some type of thought or feeling whether it is good or bad. A few examples: (Colors in Advertising)

·         Red: speed, power, excitement, stop

·         Green: health and nature

·         Blue: serenity, clarity, intellect, and precision, formality, elegance

·         Yellow: happy, energetic, rejuvenation, sunshine

·         Purple: luxury, high quality, feminine

·         Orange: adrenalin, cheapness, energy

·         Pink: feminine, baby, calming, sweet, angelic

·         Black: exclusive, excellence, formal, traditional

·         White: purity, calm, clear-cut